I have been planning to write this article for a long time now but couldn’t as i wasn’t able to find live streaming links for all the major Indian TV channels. But, i have decided to publish all the current working links for live streaming and update this article as and when i discover new links for other channels.
Anyways, at first the idea of live streaming Indian TV channels on mobile phone seemed a lame and useless as GPRS isn’t considered the best option for streaming videos. However, since 3G is still months away from official launch, i tried to gamble with it and found that streaming isn’t that bad at all! Channels that provide lo version ran quite nicely without any snag (tried on Airtel Mobile Office). Coming back to the topic, i was able to find some working links that allow you to watch live streaming of few channels like MTV, 9XM and Colours. Open the following mentioned url’s in your mobile phone’s default web browser to view live streaming of channels:
* rtsp://94.75.250.53:554/rtplive/9xm (9XM – lo version)
* rtsp://94.75.250.53:554/live/9xm2 (9Xm – hi version)
* rtsp://79.125.116.42/rtpencoder/zenga003.sdp (Colors)
* rstp://79.125.116.42/rtpencoder/zenga007.sdp (MTv)
* rtsp://121.241.248.1:554/rtpencoder/NDTV24X7_H264.sdp (NDTV 24×7)
* rtsp://121.241.248.1:554/rtpencoder/AAJTAK_H264.sdp (AajTak)
* rtsp://59.162.166.213:554/LINKS/71080e65521073e1a4aa182e6b65353807954183954774363748604bd14b0b001fd35328c0f1b5638-8-28-10.sdp?msisdn=9651258324?pkg_id=3?region=airtel (TenSports)
Sunday, April 3, 2011
Some Computer Hardware Tips
Five Easy Steps to Improving Your Computer Performance
You don't have to be a computer expert to realize that your computer isn't working as well as it once was. Over time, that brand new computer - laptop or desktop - begins to have troubles. It runs slowly or it freezes up for no apparent reason, ruining your computer experience. But before you run out to the store for a new model, you need to try these five steps. All of them are easy enough for anyone to do - and you will see a vast improvement in just a few minutes.
Get Rid of Extra Files
If you've ever tried to find something in a room that's cluttered, you already know how difficult that can be. The same can be said of your computer. When you have too many files and too many programs, it can lead to troubles with the performance. What you need to do is get rid of the excess bloat that's on your computer. But while this is easy, you do need to be careful along the way. There are some programs on your computer that you do not recognize by name that are vital to your computer's performance - and these should not be deleted.The good news is that most PCs are careful about letting a user delete something that might be important, so you will be warned if you are heading into dangerous territory.Right now, you might want to go into your Documents menu to remove any excess files that don't need to be there. If you do need these files, think about storing them on a flash drive instead of on your hard drive. In the documents folder, you will also see that you have pictures and other files that you are storing. If you don't need them or they can be taken off the hard drive - take them off.
Get Rid of Extra Programs
When you get a new computer, not only does it have the latest specifications, but it also tends to have extra programs on it - programs that you may never use. To help your computer's performance, you will want to remove as many of these as possible. In a PC, go into your control panel folder to 'Add/Remove Programs.' You will find a list of all the games and other programs on your hard drive. Each of these programs is not only taking up space on your drive, but they can also be potentially slowing down the performance. Take some time to look through these files to see what you use and what you can remove. Games tend to be a big filler on a computer's hard drive, so unless you play these regularly, they can be removed. Just follow the prompts on your computer screen in this folder.
Free Up Space on your Hard Disk
To further help your computer's performance, you will want to head back into your control panel to the option to free up space on your hard disk. This is helpful especially to a computer user that doesn't know a lot about what is okay to delete and what isn't. This program gathers the information on the computer (temporary internet files, things in the recycling bin, etc.) that can be easily deleted without any troubles. All you need to do is click on this option, allow the computer to gather the files, and then tell the computer to remove them.
Defragment Your Computer Regularly
Another option in your Control Panel is to defragment your hard drives. This option allows your computer to rearrange the remaining files on your computer so that they run more quickly and efficiently. This process basically assesses your current hard drive and then sees how it can rearrange everything. The process should be done on a regular basis, even weekly if you can. It's best to do this after you have deleted the excess files because you can then just rearrange all of the remaining programs and files in the process.There may be some files that can not be moved during the defragmentation process, but this does not cause any major problems for most people.
Add More Memory
If all of these steps simply do not help your computer, your best bet is to add more memory to your hard drive. This will help your computer to run better and more efficiently. When all the programs have enough room to run, this will enhance the speed of your programs as well as your ability to run multiple programs at the same time.These simple steps will help you improve the performance of your computer without necessitating any additional costs, unless you need more memory. And this adds up to savings for you and for your computer. When you can maintain the performance, you will be able to keep your computer for a longer period of time without having to replace it.
You don't have to be a computer expert to realize that your computer isn't working as well as it once was. Over time, that brand new computer - laptop or desktop - begins to have troubles. It runs slowly or it freezes up for no apparent reason, ruining your computer experience. But before you run out to the store for a new model, you need to try these five steps. All of them are easy enough for anyone to do - and you will see a vast improvement in just a few minutes.
Get Rid of Extra Files
If you've ever tried to find something in a room that's cluttered, you already know how difficult that can be. The same can be said of your computer. When you have too many files and too many programs, it can lead to troubles with the performance. What you need to do is get rid of the excess bloat that's on your computer. But while this is easy, you do need to be careful along the way. There are some programs on your computer that you do not recognize by name that are vital to your computer's performance - and these should not be deleted.The good news is that most PCs are careful about letting a user delete something that might be important, so you will be warned if you are heading into dangerous territory.Right now, you might want to go into your Documents menu to remove any excess files that don't need to be there. If you do need these files, think about storing them on a flash drive instead of on your hard drive. In the documents folder, you will also see that you have pictures and other files that you are storing. If you don't need them or they can be taken off the hard drive - take them off.
Get Rid of Extra Programs
When you get a new computer, not only does it have the latest specifications, but it also tends to have extra programs on it - programs that you may never use. To help your computer's performance, you will want to remove as many of these as possible. In a PC, go into your control panel folder to 'Add/Remove Programs.' You will find a list of all the games and other programs on your hard drive. Each of these programs is not only taking up space on your drive, but they can also be potentially slowing down the performance. Take some time to look through these files to see what you use and what you can remove. Games tend to be a big filler on a computer's hard drive, so unless you play these regularly, they can be removed. Just follow the prompts on your computer screen in this folder.
Free Up Space on your Hard Disk
To further help your computer's performance, you will want to head back into your control panel to the option to free up space on your hard disk. This is helpful especially to a computer user that doesn't know a lot about what is okay to delete and what isn't. This program gathers the information on the computer (temporary internet files, things in the recycling bin, etc.) that can be easily deleted without any troubles. All you need to do is click on this option, allow the computer to gather the files, and then tell the computer to remove them.
Defragment Your Computer Regularly
Another option in your Control Panel is to defragment your hard drives. This option allows your computer to rearrange the remaining files on your computer so that they run more quickly and efficiently. This process basically assesses your current hard drive and then sees how it can rearrange everything. The process should be done on a regular basis, even weekly if you can. It's best to do this after you have deleted the excess files because you can then just rearrange all of the remaining programs and files in the process.There may be some files that can not be moved during the defragmentation process, but this does not cause any major problems for most people.
Add More Memory
If all of these steps simply do not help your computer, your best bet is to add more memory to your hard drive. This will help your computer to run better and more efficiently. When all the programs have enough room to run, this will enhance the speed of your programs as well as your ability to run multiple programs at the same time.These simple steps will help you improve the performance of your computer without necessitating any additional costs, unless you need more memory. And this adds up to savings for you and for your computer. When you can maintain the performance, you will be able to keep your computer for a longer period of time without having to replace it.
Backing up Outlook Express files
Backing up Outlook Express filesCan you explain how to back up Outlook Express files and folders?Sure. I assume you want to back up your Inbox, Sent Items, Deleted Items, etc. There's a relatively easy—but inelegant—way to do it.
Outlook Express files end with dbx. So, you'll get Inbox.dbx, Folders.dbx, Offline.dbx, etc. The trick is finding the dbx files.
A search in Windows Explorer probably won't work. The search function is awful. Besides, Microsoft doesn't like to expose system files. So we'll just have to track 'em down!
To do that, open Outlook Express. Click Tools>>Options. Select the Maintenance tab. Click the Store Folder… button. You'll get a little Window that says Store Location. A box within the windows contains the path to the dbx files. This is the inelegant part.
Here's my path: C:\Documents and Settings\Kim\Local Settings\Application Data\Identities\{86757014-3806-4091-ADBB-3CD3F270ECE0}\Microsoft\Outlook Express.
Use Windows Explorer to follow the path. The dbx files are in the Outlook Express folder. As I said, Microsoft really doesn't want us messing with these files. So they may be hidden.
If you don't see them, click Tools>>Folder Options in Windows Explorer. Click View. Under Advanced Settings, select "Show hidden files and folders." Deselect "Hide extensions for known file types." Also deselect "Hide protected operating system files (Recommended)." Click Apply>>OK.
If you have a regular backup routine, just include the dbx files. If you don't, copy them to a flash drive, second hard drive or CD. Do not copy them to the hard drive on which they reside. Your biggest danger is a hard drive failure. If that were to happen, it would take the backup with it.
Outlook Express files end with dbx. So, you'll get Inbox.dbx, Folders.dbx, Offline.dbx, etc. The trick is finding the dbx files.
A search in Windows Explorer probably won't work. The search function is awful. Besides, Microsoft doesn't like to expose system files. So we'll just have to track 'em down!
To do that, open Outlook Express. Click Tools>>Options. Select the Maintenance tab. Click the Store Folder… button. You'll get a little Window that says Store Location. A box within the windows contains the path to the dbx files. This is the inelegant part.
Here's my path: C:\Documents and Settings\Kim\Local Settings\Application Data\Identities\{86757014-3806-4091-ADBB-3CD3F270ECE0}\Microsoft\Outlook Express.
Use Windows Explorer to follow the path. The dbx files are in the Outlook Express folder. As I said, Microsoft really doesn't want us messing with these files. So they may be hidden.
If you don't see them, click Tools>>Folder Options in Windows Explorer. Click View. Under Advanced Settings, select "Show hidden files and folders." Deselect "Hide extensions for known file types." Also deselect "Hide protected operating system files (Recommended)." Click Apply>>OK.
If you have a regular backup routine, just include the dbx files. If you don't, copy them to a flash drive, second hard drive or CD. Do not copy them to the hard drive on which they reside. Your biggest danger is a hard drive failure. If that were to happen, it would take the backup with it.
X-ray effect CDs or not?
Will airport X-ray machines harm CDs?
I work for the Transportation Security Administration in Miami. A lot of people come through with photo CDs from their vacations. At least one resort tells customers that the discs should be hand checked. We don't mind doing that. But I would like to know definitively if X-ray machines harm discs. Over the years, I've gotten lots of questions on film and memory cards. But I've never gotten one on CDs.
According to information online, the answer to your question is no. Kodak says on several sites that CDs and DVDs are not harmed by airport X-rays. That goes for digital memory cards, too.
The discs in question are probably CD-Rs. These are recordable only once. They use a dye, which is burned when the disc is recorded. It takes a fair amount of heat to affect the dye. That is not a problem with the airport machines.
CD-RWs use a different process to accept data. But it also is heat based. So I would think that they, too, could sail through without a problem.
Commercially made discs are molded, not burned. They would be even less likely to be affected.
Given all that, I would not worry about taking CDs through airport machines. The same goes for DVDs.
I work for the Transportation Security Administration in Miami. A lot of people come through with photo CDs from their vacations. At least one resort tells customers that the discs should be hand checked. We don't mind doing that. But I would like to know definitively if X-ray machines harm discs. Over the years, I've gotten lots of questions on film and memory cards. But I've never gotten one on CDs.
According to information online, the answer to your question is no. Kodak says on several sites that CDs and DVDs are not harmed by airport X-rays. That goes for digital memory cards, too.
The discs in question are probably CD-Rs. These are recordable only once. They use a dye, which is burned when the disc is recorded. It takes a fair amount of heat to affect the dye. That is not a problem with the airport machines.
CD-RWs use a different process to accept data. But it also is heat based. So I would think that they, too, could sail through without a problem.
Commercially made discs are molded, not burned. They would be even less likely to be affected.
Given all that, I would not worry about taking CDs through airport machines. The same goes for DVDs.
ISLAM AND TERRORISM
by
Dr. Zakir Naik
MUSLIMS ARE FUNDAMENTALISTS AND TERRORISTS
Dr. Zakir Naik
MUSLIMS ARE FUNDAMENTALISTS AND TERRORISTS
Question: Why are most of the Muslims fundamentalists and terrorists?
Answer: This question is often hurled at Muslims, either directly or indirectly, during any discussion on religion or world affairs. Muslim stereotypes are perpetuated in every form of the media accompanied by gross misinformation about Islam and Muslims. In fact, such misinformation and false propaganda often leads to discrimination and acts of violence against Muslims. A case in point is the anti-Muslim campaign in the American media following the Oklahoma bomb blast, where the press was quick to declare a ‘Middle Eastern conspiracy’ behind the attack. The culprit was later identified as a soldier from the American Armed Forces. Let us analyze this allegation of ‘fundamentalism’ and ‘terrorism’:
1. Definition of the word ‘fundamentalist’ A fundamentalist is a person who follows and adheres to the fundamentals of the doctrine or theory he is following. For a person to be a good doctor, he should know, follow, and practise the fundamentals of medicine. In other words, he should be a fundamentalist in the field of medicine. For a person to be a good mathematician, he should know, follow and practise the fundamentals of mathematics. He should be a fundamentalist in the field of mathematics. For a person to be a good scientist, he should know, follow and practise the fundamentals of science. He should be a fundamentalist in the field of science.
2. Not all ‘fundamentalists’ are the same One cannot paint all fundamentalists with the same brush. One cannot categorize all fundamentalists as either good or bad. Such a categorization of any fund amentalist will depend upon the field or activity in which he is a fundamentalist. A fundamentalist robber or thief causes harm to society and is therefore undesirable. A fundamentalist doctor, on the other hand, benefits society and earns much respect.
3. I am proud to be a Muslim fundamentalist I am a fundamentalist Muslim who, by the grace of Allah, knows, follows and strives to practise the fundamentals of Islam. A true Muslim does not shy away from being a fundamentalist. I am proud to be a fundamentalist Muslim because, I know that the fundamentals of Islam are beneficial to humanity and the whole world. There is not a single fundamental of Islam that causes harm or is against the interests of the human race as a whole. Many people harbour misconceptions about Islam and consider several teachings of Islam to be unfair or improper. This is due to insufficient and incorrect knowledge of Islam. If one critically analyzes the teachings of Islam with an open mind, one cannot escape the fact that Islam is full of benefits both at the individual and collective levels.
4. Dictionary meaning of the word ‘fundamentalist’ According to Webster’s dictionary ‘fundamentalism’ was a movement in American Protestanism that arose in the earlier part of the 20th century. It was a reaction to modernism, and stressed the infallibility of the Bible, not only in matters of faith and morals but also as a literal historical record. It stressed on belief in the Bible as the literal word of God. Thus fundamentalism was a word initially used for a group of Christians who believed that the Bible was the verbatim word of God without any errors and mistakes. According to the Oxford dictionary ‘fundamentalism’ means ‘strict maintenance of ancient or fundamental doctrines of any religion, especially Islam’. Today the moment a person uses the word fundamentalist he thinks of a Muslim who is a terrorist.
5. Every Muslim should be a terrorist. A terrorist is a person who causes terror. The moment a robber sees a policeman he is terrified. A policeman is a terrorist for the robber. Similarly every Muslim should be a terrorist for the antisocial elements of society, such as thieves, dacoits and rapists. Whenever such an anti-social element sees a Muslim, he should be terrified. It is true that the word ‘terrorist’ is generally used for a person who causes terror among the common people. But a true Muslim should only be a terrorist to selective people i.e. anti-social elements, and not to the common innocent people. In fact a Muslim should be a source of peace for innocent people.
6. Different labels given to the same individual for the same action, i.e. ‘terrorist’ and ‘patriot’ Before India achieved independence from British rule, some freedom fighters of India who did not subscribe to non-violence were labeled as terrorists by the British government. The same individuals have been lauded by Indians for the same activities and hailed as ‘patriots’. Thus two different labels have been given to the same people for the same set of actions. One is calling him a terrorist while the other is calling him a patriot. Those who believed that Britain had a right to rule over India called these people terrorists, while those who were of the view that Britain had no right to rule India called them patriots and freedom fighters. It is therefore important that before a person is judged, he is given a fair hearing. Both sides of the argument should be heard, the situation should be analyzed, and the reason and the intention of the person should be taken into account, and then the person can be judged accordingly.
7. Islam means peace
Islam is derived from the word ‘salaam’ which means peace. It is a religion of peace whose fundamentals teach its followers to maintain and promote peace throughout the world. Thus every Muslim should be a fundamentalist i.e. he should follow the fundamentals of the Religion of Peace: Islam. He should be a terrorist only towards the antisocial elements in order to promote peace and justice in the society.
Islam is derived from the word ‘salaam’ which means peace. It is a religion of peace whose fundamentals teach its followers to maintain and promote peace throughout the world. Thus every Muslim should be a fundamentalist i.e. he should follow the fundamentals of the Religion of Peace: Islam. He should be a terrorist only towards the antisocial elements in order to promote peace and justice in the society.
WAS ISLAM SPREAD BY THE SWORD?
Question: How can Islam be called the religion of peace when it was spread by the sword?
Answer: It is a common complaint among some non-Muslims that Islam would not have millions of adherents all over the world, if it had not been spread by the use of force. The following points will make it clear, that far from being spread by the sword, it was the inherent force of truth, reason and logic that was responsible for the rapid spread of Islam.
1. Islam means peace. Islam comes from the root word ‘salaam’, which means peace. It also means submitting one’s will to Allah (swt). Thus Islam is a religion of peace, which is acquired by submitting one’s will to the will of the Supreme Creator, Allah (swt).
2. Sometimes force has to be used to maintain peace.
Each and every human being in this world is not in favour of maintaining peace and harmony. There are many, who would disrupt it for their own vested interests. Sometimes force has to be used to maintain peace. It is precisely for this reason that we have the police who use force against criminals and anti-social elements to maintain peace in the country. Islam promotes peace. At the same time, Islam exhorts it followers to fight where there is oppression. The fight against oppression may, at times, require the use of force. In Islam force can only be used to promote peace and justice.
Each and every human being in this world is not in favour of maintaining peace and harmony. There are many, who would disrupt it for their own vested interests. Sometimes force has to be used to maintain peace. It is precisely for this reason that we have the police who use force against criminals and anti-social elements to maintain peace in the country. Islam promotes peace. At the same time, Islam exhorts it followers to fight where there is oppression. The fight against oppression may, at times, require the use of force. In Islam force can only be used to promote peace and justice.
3. Opinion of historian De Lacy O’Leary.
The best reply to the misconception that Islam was spread by the sword is given by the noted historian De Lacy O’Leary in the book ’Islam at the cross road’ (Page 8): ’History makes it clear however, that the legend of fanatical Muslims sweeping through the world and forcing Islam at the point of the sword upon conquered races is one of the most fantastically absurd myth that historians have ever repeated.’
The best reply to the misconception that Islam was spread by the sword is given by the noted historian De Lacy O’Leary in the book ’Islam at the cross road’ (Page 8): ’History makes it clear however, that the legend of fanatical Muslims sweeping through the world and forcing Islam at the point of the sword upon conquered races is one of the most fantastically absurd myth that historians have ever repeated.’
4. Muslims ruled Spain for 800 years.
Muslims ruled Spain for about 800 years. The Muslims in Spain never used the sword to force the people to convert. Later the Christian Crusaders came to Spain and wiped out the Muslims. There was not a single Muslim in Spain who could openly give the adhan, that is the call for prayers.
Muslims ruled Spain for about 800 years. The Muslims in Spain never used the sword to force the people to convert. Later the Christian Crusaders came to Spain and wiped out the Muslims. There was not a single Muslim in Spain who could openly give the adhan, that is the call for prayers.
5. 14 million Arabs are Coptic Christians.
Muslims were the lords of Arabia for 1400 years. For a few years the British ruled, and for a few years the French ruled. Overall, the Muslims ruled Arabia for 1400 years. Yet today, there are 14 million Arabs who are Coptic Christians i.e. Christians since generations. If the Muslims had used the sword there would not have been a single Arab who would have remained a Christian.
Muslims were the lords of Arabia for 1400 years. For a few years the British ruled, and for a few years the French ruled. Overall, the Muslims ruled Arabia for 1400 years. Yet today, there are 14 million Arabs who are Coptic Christians i.e. Christians since generations. If the Muslims had used the sword there would not have been a single Arab who would have remained a Christian.
6. More than 80% non-Muslims in India.
The Muslims ruled India for about a thousand years. If they wanted, they had the power of converting each and every non-Muslim of India to Islam. Today more than 80% of the population of India are non-Muslims. All these non-Muslim Indians are bearing witness today that Islam was not spread by the sword.
The Muslims ruled India for about a thousand years. If they wanted, they had the power of converting each and every non-Muslim of India to Islam. Today more than 80% of the population of India are non-Muslims. All these non-Muslim Indians are bearing witness today that Islam was not spread by the sword.
7. Indonesia and Malaysia.
Indonesia is a country that has the maximum number of Muslims in the world. The majority of people in Malaysia are Muslims. May one ask, ’Which Muslim army went to Indonesia and Malaysia?’
Indonesia is a country that has the maximum number of Muslims in the world. The majority of people in Malaysia are Muslims. May one ask, ’Which Muslim army went to Indonesia and Malaysia?’
8. East Coast of Africa.
Similarly, Islam has spread rapidly on the East Coast of Africa. One may again ask, if Islam was spread by the sword, ’Which Muslim army went to the East Coast of Africa?’
Similarly, Islam has spread rapidly on the East Coast of Africa. One may again ask, if Islam was spread by the sword, ’Which Muslim army went to the East Coast of Africa?’
9. Thomas Carlyle.
The famous historian, Thomas Carlyle, in his book ’Heroes and Hero worship’, refers to this misconception about the spread of Islam: ’The sword indeed, but where will you get your sword? Every new opinion, at its starting is precisely in a minority of one. In one man’s head alone. There it dwells as yet. One man alone of the whole world believes it, there is one man against all men. That he takes a sword and try to propagate with that, will do little for him. You must get your sword! On the whole, a thing will propagate itself as it can.’
The famous historian, Thomas Carlyle, in his book ’Heroes and Hero worship’, refers to this misconception about the spread of Islam: ’The sword indeed, but where will you get your sword? Every new opinion, at its starting is precisely in a minority of one. In one man’s head alone. There it dwells as yet. One man alone of the whole world believes it, there is one man against all men. That he takes a sword and try to propagate with that, will do little for him. You must get your sword! On the whole, a thing will propagate itself as it can.’
10. No compulsion in religion.
With which sword was Islam spread? Even if Muslims had it they could not use it to spread Islam because the Qur’an says in the following verse: ’Let there be no compulsion in religion: Truth stands out clear from error’ [Al-Qur’an 2:256]
With which sword was Islam spread? Even if Muslims had it they could not use it to spread Islam because the Qur’an says in the following verse: ’Let there be no compulsion in religion: Truth stands out clear from error’ [Al-Qur’an 2:256]
11. Sword of the Intellect.
It is the sword of intellect. The sword that conquers the hearts and minds of people. The Qur’an says in Surah Nahl, chapter 16 verse 125: ’Invite (all) to the way of thy Lord with wisdom and beautiful preaching; and argue with them in ways that are best and most gracious.’ [Al-Qur’an 16:125]
It is the sword of intellect. The sword that conquers the hearts and minds of people. The Qur’an says in Surah Nahl, chapter 16 verse 125: ’Invite (all) to the way of thy Lord with wisdom and beautiful preaching; and argue with them in ways that are best and most gracious.’ [Al-Qur’an 16:125]
12. Increase in the world religions from 1934 to 1984.
An article in Reader’s Digest ‘Almanac’, year book 1986, gave the statistics of the increase of percentage of the major religions of the world in half a century from 1934 to 1984. This article also appeared in ‘The Plain Truth’ magazine. At the top was Islam, which increased by 235%, and Christianity had increased only by 47%. May one ask, which war took place in this century which converted millions of people to Islam?
An article in Reader’s Digest ‘Almanac’, year book 1986, gave the statistics of the increase of percentage of the major religions of the world in half a century from 1934 to 1984. This article also appeared in ‘The Plain Truth’ magazine. At the top was Islam, which increased by 235%, and Christianity had increased only by 47%. May one ask, which war took place in this century which converted millions of people to Islam?
13. Islam is the fastest growing religion in America and Europe.
Today the fastest growing religion in America is Islam. The fastest growing religion in Europe in Islam. Which sword is forcing people in the West to accept Islam in such large numbers? 14. Dr. Joseph Adam Pearson.
Dr. Joseph Adam Pearson rightly says, ’People who worry that nuclear weaponry will one day fall in the hands of the Arabs, fail to realize that the Islamic bomb has been dropped already, it fell the day MUHAMMED (pbuh) was born’
Today the fastest growing religion in America is Islam. The fastest growing religion in Europe in Islam. Which sword is forcing people in the West to accept Islam in such large numbers? 14. Dr. Joseph Adam Pearson.
Dr. Joseph Adam Pearson rightly says, ’People who worry that nuclear weaponry will one day fall in the hands of the Arabs, fail to realize that the Islamic bomb has been dropped already, it fell the day MUHAMMED (pbuh) was born’
Biological Analysis of Einstein's Brain
volume and IQ scores.8 Further work is needed to
reconcile these results with the inconsistent findings on
brain weight in the earlier case reports. Brain volume
and weight are not perfectly correlated, and imaging
does not provide measures of brain weight.
The case of Albert Einstein
Resolving the neurobiological substrate of intelligence
may be facilitated by the comparison of extreme cases
with control groups within the framework of specific
hypotheses. Albert Einstein is one of the intellectual
giants of recorded history, and the preservation of his
brain provides the possibility of an important case study.
Since Einstein’s death, there has been no report of the
gross anatomy of his brain. Here we present the first
such study.
Our investigation of Einstein’s brain was guided
theoretically on the basis of current information of
cortical localisation of cognitive functions. The
generation and manipulation of three-dimensional
spatial images and the mathematical representation of
concepts would appear to be essential cognitive
processes in the development of Einstein’s theory of
r e l a t i v i t y .9 Einstein’s own description of his scientific
thinking was that “. . . words do not seem to play any
role”, but there is “associative play” of “more or less
clear images” of a “visual and muscular type”.1 0
Visuospatial cognition,1 1 , 1 2 mathematical ideation,1 1 a n d
imagery of movement1 3 are mediated predominantly by
right and left posterior parietal regions. We hypothesised
that the parietal lobes in particular might show
anatomical differences between Einstein’s brain and the
brains of controls.
Preservation of Einstein’s brain
Einstein died from a ruptured aneurysm of the
abdominal aorta in 1955 at the age of 76 years. His
medical history has been well documented, and his
biographies show that he was mentally adept to the end
of his life.9 Within 7 hours of death, his brain was
removed at necropsy, fresh weight was measured,
perfusion of 10% formalin by injection into the internal
carotid arteries was carried out, and the whole brain was
then freely suspended in 10% formalin for fixation and
subsequent study. No significant neuropathology was
seen on examination (gross or microscopic). After
fixation, caliper measurements were made directly from
the brain; calibrated photographs were taken of all views
of the whole brain and of the dissected hemispheres; the
cerebral hemispheres were cut into approximately 240
blocks, each about 10 cm3; and the location of the
blocks was recorded on photographs. The blocks were
embedded in celloidin, and histological sections were
m a d e .
THE LANCET • Vol 353 • June 19, 1999 2149
In recent decades, there have been major advances in
neuroscience at the behavioural and neural levels, but
the long-standing issue of the neurobiological basis of
variation in intelligence remains unresolved.1 Around the
turn of the 20th century, much attention was focused on
anatomical correlates of intelligence through detailed
necropsy case studies of the brains of outstanding
people, such as mathematician Karl F Gauss or
physician William Osler.2 , 3 By 1907, Spitzka4 h a d
published an extensive monograph that summarised 137
case reports of notable men and women such as Bach
and Descartes, and also presented one of the first group
studies of nine scholars. Weight of the brain and patterns
of gyral convolutions were usually examined.
This early work had several limitations. First, medical
and cognitive status at the time of death were often not
known. Second, normal comparison groups were not
available, so that the results were mainly idiosyncratic
observations. Quantitative measurement was usually
limited to the weight of the whole brain, and even its
relation to intelligence remained unresolved. For
example, novelist Ivan Turgenev’s brain weighed
2012 g,4 whereas the brain of author Anatole France was
half the value (1017 g).5 Third, work was based on the
assumption that intelligence was a unitary homogeneous
ability—even though different people varied greatly in
their area of cognitive excellence. (According to current
theories of intelligence, there are independent spheres or
modules of cognitive ability.6) Last, the studies had no
a priori hypotheses as to the relation between structure
and psychological function, since there was little
knowledge about the cortical localisation of cognitive
f u n c t i o n .7
After the horrific events of World War II, issues
related to the neurobiological substrate of intelligence
were considered with great caution, and research in this
area dwindled. The development of computerised
imaging technologies has made it possible to obtain
quantitative measurements of brain anatomy in vivo with
magnetic resonance scanning, and renewed attention has
been directed to the investigation of structure-function
relations in the general population. The studies have
varied greatly in their methodology, and, although the
results are inconsistent, they do point to a low, but
statistically significant, positive correlation between brain
Lancet 1999; 353: 2149–53
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences,
McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada (S F Witelson PhD,
D L Kigar, T Harvey MD)
Correspondence to: Dr Sandra F Witelson, Department of Psychiatry
and Behavioural Neurosciences, Faculty of Health Sciences,
McMaster University, HSC 3G53, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton,
Ontario L8N 3Z5, Canada
(e-mail: witelson@mcmaster.ca)
The exceptional brain of Albert Einstein
Sandra F Witelson, Debra L Kigar, Thomas Harvey
Department of medical history
DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL HISTORY
2150 THE LANCET • Vol 353 • June 19, 1999
Although there is no record of his having made specific
arrangements for post-mortem study of his brain,
Einstein was sympathetic to the idea of his brain being
studied. As reported in The New York Times in 1951, he,
along with other physicists, underwent electroencephalographic
recordings for research purposes.1 4 He also
“insisted that his brain should be used for research”.1 5 A t
the time of his death, the family requested a necropsy,
which was done by pathologist Thomas Harvey, who
took the initiative to remove the brain for scientific
study. Consent was given by Einstein’s elder son, Hans
Albert Einstein,1 6 and by the executor of Einstein’s
estate, Prof Otto Nathan (ref 17, p 264).
Control brain specimens
The control group consisted of all the male specimens
available at the time (n=35) in the Witelson Normal
Brain Collection based at McMaster University. The key
features of this collection are that the brains are from
research volunteers with normal neurological and
psychiatric status (as judged by
clinical history and medical
assessments) and normal
cognitive ability (as
documented by research
neuropsychological testing that
included IQ assessment).1 8 I n
each case, informed consent
with respect to testing and
necropsy had been obtained.
Mean Full Scale IQ score
o n the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale1 9 w a s
1 1 6 (SD 9). Quantitative
measures of Einstein’s brain
and this control group were
compared; Einstein’s brain was
also compared with a smaller
age-matched subgroup (in the
collection) of the 8 men aged
65 years or more (mean 68) for
brain measures known to
change with advancing age.
Although women have smaller
brains than men,2 0 for purposes
of descriptive analysis of gyral
morphology, Einstein’s brain
was also compared with 56
female brains (the total
number of female brains in the
same collection).
M e a s u r e m e n t s
Direct caliper measurements
were made both from
Einstein’s brain and from the
control brains. Other
measurements were made from
calibrated photographs. We
measured baseline values for
overall dimensions of the
brain, including variables for
which there are published data
(eg, weight, corpus callosum
s i z e2 1); measures involving
parietal regions important for
visuospatial cognition and mathematical thinking; and,
for comparison, measures of frontal and temporal
regions. Statistically significant differences between
Einstein and the control group were defined as those
measures at least 2 SDs from the control mean.
Einstein’s parietal lobes
Figure 1 shows the set of photographs taken in 1955 of
the lateral, superior, inferior, and midsagittal views of
Einstein’s brain. The superior view (figure 1A) shows a
relatively spherical brain which is corroborated
quantitatively (see below). Moderate atrophy is present
around the main fissures in the central regions in both
hemispheres, to an extent common for a person in their
eighth decade.2 2 A unique morphological feature is
visible in the lateral surface of each hemisphere which
otherwise shows usual anatomy (figure 1B, 1C)—
namely, the posterior ascending branch of the Sylvian
fissure is confluent with the postcentral sulcus.
Consequently, there is no parietal operculum (the
DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL HISTORY
Figure 1: Photographs taken in 1995 of five views of Einstein’s whole brain (meninges removed)
A, superior; B, left lateral; C, right lateral; D, inferior; E, midsagittal view of the left hemisphere. The arrow in
each hemisphere indicates the posterior ascending branch of the Sylvian fissure as it runs into (is confluent
with) the postcentral sulcus (compare with figure 2). Consequently, there is no parietal operculum in either
hemisphere. Scale bar, 1 cm.
THE LANCET • Vol 353 • June 19, 1999 2151
anterior part of the supramarginal
gyrus), which normally develops
between these two sulci during fetal
l i f e .2 3 , 2 4 This morphology found in each
of Einstein’s hemispheres was not seen
in any hemisphere of the 35 control
male brains or of the 56 female brains,
nor in any specimen documented in the
published collections of post-mortem
b r a i n s .2 5 , 2 6
Figure 2 highlights this unique
feature of Einstein’s brain in
comparison with a typical control
brain. Three main types of morphology
of the Sylvian fissure and surrounding
gyri have been described previously;2 7
in each type, the Sylvian fissure
terminates or bifurcates behind the
postcentral sulcus, and the parietal
operculum is present. The tracing of
the superimposed hemispheres of the
control brain (figure 2, no 3) shows the
typical right-left asymmetry in size and
position of the Sylvian fissure and the
parietal opercula.2 8 By contrast, the
tracing of Einstein’s hemispheres
(figure 2, no 6) shows the confluence
of the posterior ascending branch of
the Sylvian fissure and the postcentral
sulcus in each hemisphere, the absence
of the parietal opercula, and unusual
symmetry between hemispheres of
sulcal morphology in this region.
Quantitative measurements of
Einstein’s brain compared with the
male control group are shown in the
table, with relevant landmarks shown
in figure 3. Einstein’s brain was not
statistically different from the control
group on most measures. His brain
weight did not differ from the control
group, from the age-matched
subgroup, or from published large agematched
groups (table, measure 1).
Unfortunately, the volume of Einstein’s
brain had not been obtained. Brain length, height, size of
the corpus callosum, and measures of the frontal and
temporal lobes did not differ between Einstein and
controls. However, size of a specific gyral region in the
frontal operculum was different in Einstein’s brain from
that of the control group. The possible association of this
feature in relation to biographical accounts of Einstein’s
atypical speech development1 7 will be reported elsewhere.
By contrast, in the parietal lobes, there were striking
quantitative differences. Each hemisphere of Einstein’s
brain was 1 cm wider (15%) than that of the control
group (measure 5). Maximum width usually occurs
across the end of the Sylvian fissure—the region of
unique morphology in Einstein’s brain. The ratios of
hemisphere width to height and of brain width to length
(measures 6 and 7) showed that in Einstein’s brain the
parietal lobes were relatively wider and the brain more
spherical (see figure 1A) than those in the control group.
In Einstein’s brain, the parietal operculum was missing
in each hemisphere in contrast to control values of
6 · 1 c m2 and 3·6 cm2 in the left and right hemispheres,
respectively (measure 24). Parietal regions typically
s h o w anatomical asymmetry (table, control group,
measures 19–242 8). Einstein’s parietal lobes were
symmetrical (compare with figure 2, no 6). This was due
mainly to his left parietal lobe being larger than
u s u a l , resembling a right hemisphere in size and
m o r p h o l o g y .
D i s c u s s i o n
The gross anatomy of Einstein’s brain was within normal
limits with the exception of his parietal lobes. In each
hemisphere, morphology of the Sylvian fissure was
unique compared with 182 hemispheres from the 35
control male and 56 female brains: the posterior end of
the Sylvian fissure had a relatively anterior position,
associated with no parietal operculum. In this same
region, Einstein’s brain was 15% wider than controls.
These two features suggest that, in Einstein’s brain,
extensive development of the posterior parietal lobes
occurred early,2 4 in both longitudinal and breadth
dimensions, thereby constraining the posterior expansion
DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL HISTORY
Figure 2: Lateral photographs and tracings of left (solid line) and right (dashed line)
superimposed hemispheres of a typical control male brain (1, 2, 3) and the brain of
Einstein (4, 5, 6)
The photographs of the control brain show the parietal operculum in the left (stippled) and right
(hatched) hemisphere, situated between the postcentral (PC) sulcus and the posterior ascending
branch of the Sylvian fissure (SF), which originates at the point of bifurcation (l) and terminates at
S. PC1 is the inferior end of PC at SF. The tracing of the superimposed hemispheres (3) shows the
asymmetry in position and size between the parietal opercula. The tracing of Einstein’s
hemispheres (6) highlights the confluence of PC and the posterior ascending branch of SF in each
hemisphere, the absence of the parietal opercula, and the symmetry of the sulcal morphology
between hemispheres. Comparison of the tracings shows the relatively anterior position of the SF
bifurcation in Einstein, and the associated greater posterior parietal expanse, particularly in his left
hemisphere compared with the control brain.
2152 THE LANCET • Vol 353 • June 19, 1999
of the Sylvian fissure and the development of the parietal
operculum, but resulting in a larger expanse of the
inferior parietal lobule. A further consequence of this
morphology is that the full supramarginal gyrus lies
behind the Sylvian fissure, undivided by a major sulcus
as is usually the case. Van Essen2 9 hypothesised that a
gyrus develops within a region of functionally related
cortex to allow for efficient axonal connectivity between
opposite cortical walls of the gyrus; by contrast, sulci
separate cortical regions having less functional
relatedness. In this context, the compactness of
Einstein’s supramarginal gyrus within the inferior
parietal lobule may reflect an extraordinarily large
expanse of highly integrated cortex within a functional
network. And in fact there is evidence that cortical
representation of different functions is often separated by
s u l c i .3 0 This notion could be consistent with Cajal’s3 1
speculation that variation in axonal connectivity may be
a neuronal correlate of intelligence. A larger expanse of a
functional cortical network may reflect more modules3 2
which could provide a functional advantage.
The inferior parietal lobule is well developed in the
human brain; it is a secondary association area that
provides for cross-modal associations among visual,
somesthetic, and auditory stimuli.7 V i s u o s p a t i a l
cognition, mathematical thought,1 1 and imagery of
m o v e m e n t1 3 are strongly dependent on this region.
Einstein’s exceptional intellect in these cognitive
domains and his self-described mode of scientific
t h i n k i n g1 0 may be related to the atypical anatomy in his
inferior parietal lobules. Increased expansion of the
inferior parietal region was also noted in other physicists
and mathematicians. For example, for both the
mathematician, Gauss, and the physicist, Siljeström,
extensive development of the inferior parietal regions,
including the supramarginal gyri, was noted (ref 4, pp
180, 200).
Einstein’s brain weight was not different from that of
controls, clearly indicating that a large (heavy) brain is
not a necessary condition for exceptional intellect.
Microscopic differences may underlie gross anatomical
differences. The limited data on Einstein’s brain do not
point to a difference in the number of neurons
throughout the depth of the cortex in the frontal or
temporal lobes,3 3 , 3 4 but possibly a difference in the ratio
of the number of glial cells relative to neurons in the left
parietal cortex3 5 (compare ref 36).
This report clearly does not resolve the long-standing
issue of the neuroanatomical substrate of intelligence.
However, the findings do suggest that variation in
specific cognitive functions may be associated with the
structure of the brain regions mediating those functions.
The results have heuristic value for developing
hypotheses of the gross and microscopic anatomical
substrate of different aspects of intelligence that can be
tested in future neuroimaging and post-mortem studies.
In particular, the results predict that anatomical features
of parietal cortex may be related to visuospatial
intelligence. We also hope that this case study may be an
impetus for donation of brain specimens from other
gifted and normal individuals to support investigation of
structure-function relations in health and disease.
This work was supported in part by US NIH contract NS62344, grant
NS18954, and grant MA-10610 from MRC (Canada) to SFW.
Materials were provided by the Albert Einstein Archives, The Hebrew
University of Jerusalem. The contribution of the late Henry C Witelson is
a p p r e c i a t e d .
DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL HISTORY
Figure 3: Sketch of a typical brain showing the landmarks for
defining the measurements shown in table
F, O, and T: frontal, occipital and temporal poles, respectively; PreC, C,
PC: superior ends of the precentral, central and postcentral sulci,
respectively; PreC1, C1, PC1: inferior ends of these sulci, respectively; A,
point of origin of the anterior ascending branch of the Sylvian fissure (SF);
B, point of bifurcation of the posterior SF; S, end of SF; S1, and C2, points
of the shortest distance from S and C1, respectively, to the bottom of the
temporal lobe; parietal operculum (stippled region), the anterior segment
of the supramarginal gyrus which surrounds BS.
Einstein Control group (mean, SD)
Left Right Left Right
Age (yr) 76 57 (11)
Height (cm) 176 178 (8)
Overall brain measures
1 Brain weight, fresh (g) 1230 1400 (118)*
2 Hemisphere weight, fixed (g) 550·0 545·0 591·0 (46·0) 591·0 (48·0)
3 Maximum height of hemisphere 8·9 8·7 9·3 (0·6) 9·4 (0·6)
(cm)†
4 Length of hemisphere (OF) (cm) 17·2 16·4 16·9 (0·6) 16·8 (0·6)
5 Maximum width of hemisphere 7·5§ 7·5§ 6·5 (0·5) 6·5 (0·5)
(cm)‡
6 Ratio of width of hemisphere to 0·84§ 0·86§ 0·70 (0·07) 0·69 (0·07)
height
7 Ratio of width of brain to length 0·89§ 0·77 (0·06)
(mean OF)
8 Corpus callosum area (cm2) 6·8 7·0 (0·90)¶
Frontal lobe (cm)
9 F-PreC 9·2 9·5 9·4 (0·7) 9·2 (0·8)
10 FC 11·3 11·6 10·6 (0·6) 10·5 (0·6)
11 FA 5·1 5·1 4·8 (0·4) 4·7 (0·4)
12 A-PreC1 0·8 0·9 0·9 (0·4) 1·0 (0·4)
13 PreC1-C1 1·2 1·2 1·4 (0·5) 1·2 (0·4)
Temporal lobe (cm)
14 TO 13·2 12·8 13·2 (0·5) 13·2 (0·5)
15 C1-C2 3·9 3·9 4·0 (0·3) 4·0 (0·3)
16 SS1 6·1 6·6 5·1 (1·1) 6·0 (0·9)**
Parietal/occipital lobe (cm)
17 O-PC 8·4 7·9 8·3 (0·8) 8·4 (0·8)
18 OC 8·9 8·3 9·5 (0·6) 9·3 (0·8)
19 OB 7·1 7·9 5·8 (0·9) 7·2 (0·9)**
20 OS 8·0 7·9 6·1 (1·1) 7·4 (1·0)**
21 BS 2·5 2·9 0·9 (1·1) 2·4 (1·3)**
22 C1-PC1 3·5§ 2·0 2·3 (0·6) 2·0 (0·6)**
23 PC1-B 0§ 0§ 1·9 (1·0) 1·1 (1·2)**
24 Parietal operculum (cm2) 0§ 0§ 6·1 (3·4) 3·6 (2·1)**
Control group consists of 35 men and an age-matched male subgroup (see text).
*Our control mean of 1400 g is similar to values of other studies of large groups of
white men of similar age range (30–70 years)—eg, mean fresh brain weight=1399 g,
n=1433, mean age=53 years.20 For the age-matched subgroup, mean (SD) fresh brain
weight was 1386 g (149). In a large study, mean fresh brain weight for a 70–80 year age
group was 1342 g, n=253.20
†Maximum height usually occurs near the plane of point C (figure 3).
‡Maximum width of each hemisphere occurs over the end of SF (figure 3).
§Statistically different (2 SDs from the control group) or reflect unique morphology.
¶Callosal area is larger in non-right-handers and decreases with advancing age.21 There
is evidence to suggest that Einstein was not consistently right-handed.37 Einstein’s
callosal area of 6·8 cm2 tended to be larger than his predicted value (5·9 cm2) when
hand preference and age were taken into account.21
**Statistically significant right-left anatomical asymmetry within the control group
(compare ref 28) (p<0·01, two-tailed paired t-tests).
Measurements (see figure 3) of Einstein’s brain compared with
a control group
THE LANCET • Vol 353 • June 19, 1999 2153
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1 Deary IJ, Caryl PG. Neuroscience and human intelligence
differences. Trends Neurosci 1997; 2 0 : 3 6 5 – 7 1 .
2 Wagner R. Vorstudien zu einer wissenschaftlichen: Morphologie und
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3 Donaldson HH, Canavan MM. A study of the brains of three
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4 Spitzka EA. A study of the brains of six eminent scientists and
scholars belonging to the American Anthropometric Society.
Together with a description of the skull of Professor E D Cope. T r a n s
Am Philos Soc 1907; 2 1 : 1 7 5 – 3 0 8 .
5 Gould SJ. The mismeasure of man. New York: W W Norton, 1981.
6 Gardner H. Frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligences.
New York: Basic Books, 1983.
7 Geschwind N. Disconnexion syndromes in animals and man. B r a i n
1965; 8 8 : 2 3 7 – 9 7 .
8 Wickett JC, Vernon PA, Lee DH. In vivo brain size, head perimeter,
and intelligence in a sample of healthy adult females. Person Individ
D i f f 1994; 1 6 : 8 3 1 – 3 8 .
9 Pais A. Einstein lived here. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994.
10. Einstein A. Cited in Hadamard J. The psychology of invention in the
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1 1 Critchley M. The parietal lobes. New York: Hafner Publications,
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1 2 Tagaris GA, Kim S, Strupp JP, Andersen P, Ugurbil K,
Georgopoulos AP. Quantitative relations between parietal activation
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1 3 Crammond DJ. Motor imagery: never in your wildest dreams. T r e n d s
N e u r o s c i 1997; 2 0 : 5 4 – 5 7 .
1 4 Einstein’s brainwaves being recorded: geniuses aid test of brain
processes. The New York Times. February 24, 1951.
1 5 Clark RW. Einstein: the life and times. New York: Thomas Crowell,
1971: 630.
1 6 Brian D. Einstein: a life. New York: Wiley & Sons, 1996: 437.
1 7 Highfield R, Carter P. The private lives of Albert Einstein. New York:
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1 8 Witelson SF, McCulloch PB. Premortem and postmortem
measurement to study structure with function: a human brain
collection. Schizophr Bull 1991; 1 7 : 5 8 3 – 9 1 .
1 9 Weschler D. Manual: Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale. New York:
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2 0 Dekaban AS, Sadowsky D. Changes in brain weights during the span
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weights. Ann Neurol 1978; 4 : 3 4 5 – 5 6 .
2 1 Witelson SF. Hand and sex differences in the isthmus and genu of the
human corpus callosum: a postmortem morphological study. B r a i n
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2 2 Tomlinson BE. Ageing and the dementias. In: Adams JH, Duchen
LW, eds. Greenfield’s neuropathology, 5th edn. London: Edward
Arnold, 1992.
2 3 Chi JG, Dooling EC, Gilles FH. Gyral development of the human
brain. Ann Neurol 1977; 1 : 8 6 – 9 3 .
2 4 Fontes V. Morfologia do cortex cerebral (Desenvolvimento). Lisbon:
Lisboa, 1944.
2 5 Connolly CJ. External morphology of the primate brain. Springfield,
IL: CC Thomas, 1950.
2 6 Ono M, Kubik S, Abernathey CD. Atlas of the cerebral sulci. New
York: George Thieme Verlag, 1990.
2 7 Witelson SF, Kigar DL. Sylvian fissure morphology and asymmetry
in men and women: bilateral differences in relation to handedness in
men. J Comp Neurol 1992; 3 2 3 : 3 2 6 – 4 0 .
2 8 Witelson SF, Kigar DL. Asymmetry in brain function follows
asymmetry in anatomical form: gross, microscopic, postmortem and
imaging studies. In: Boller F, Grafman J, eds. Handbook of
neuropsychology. Vol 1. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 1988.
2 9 Van Essen DC. A tension-based theory of morphogenesis and
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3 1 3 – 1 8 .
3 0 Welker WI, Campos GB. Physiological significance of sulci in
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3 2 Stevens CF. How cortical interconnectedness varies with network
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2 1 0 : 1 6 1 – 6 4 .
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number in temporal neocortex in the brain of Albert Einstein. S o c
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3 5 Diamond MC, Scheibel AB, Murphy JGM, Harvey T. On the brain
of a scientist: Albert Einstein. Exp Neurol 1985; 8 8 : 1 9 8 – 2 0 4 .
3 6 Hines T. Further on Einstein’s brain. Exp Neurol 1998; 150: 3 4 3 – 4 4 .
3 7 Winokur M. Einstein: a portrait. Corte Madera, CA: Pomegranate
Artbooks, 1984.
DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL HISTORY
reconcile these results with the inconsistent findings on
brain weight in the earlier case reports. Brain volume
and weight are not perfectly correlated, and imaging
does not provide measures of brain weight.
The case of Albert Einstein
Resolving the neurobiological substrate of intelligence
may be facilitated by the comparison of extreme cases
with control groups within the framework of specific
hypotheses. Albert Einstein is one of the intellectual
giants of recorded history, and the preservation of his
brain provides the possibility of an important case study.
Since Einstein’s death, there has been no report of the
gross anatomy of his brain. Here we present the first
such study.
Our investigation of Einstein’s brain was guided
theoretically on the basis of current information of
cortical localisation of cognitive functions. The
generation and manipulation of three-dimensional
spatial images and the mathematical representation of
concepts would appear to be essential cognitive
processes in the development of Einstein’s theory of
r e l a t i v i t y .9 Einstein’s own description of his scientific
thinking was that “. . . words do not seem to play any
role”, but there is “associative play” of “more or less
clear images” of a “visual and muscular type”.1 0
Visuospatial cognition,1 1 , 1 2 mathematical ideation,1 1 a n d
imagery of movement1 3 are mediated predominantly by
right and left posterior parietal regions. We hypothesised
that the parietal lobes in particular might show
anatomical differences between Einstein’s brain and the
brains of controls.
Preservation of Einstein’s brain
Einstein died from a ruptured aneurysm of the
abdominal aorta in 1955 at the age of 76 years. His
medical history has been well documented, and his
biographies show that he was mentally adept to the end
of his life.9 Within 7 hours of death, his brain was
removed at necropsy, fresh weight was measured,
perfusion of 10% formalin by injection into the internal
carotid arteries was carried out, and the whole brain was
then freely suspended in 10% formalin for fixation and
subsequent study. No significant neuropathology was
seen on examination (gross or microscopic). After
fixation, caliper measurements were made directly from
the brain; calibrated photographs were taken of all views
of the whole brain and of the dissected hemispheres; the
cerebral hemispheres were cut into approximately 240
blocks, each about 10 cm3; and the location of the
blocks was recorded on photographs. The blocks were
embedded in celloidin, and histological sections were
m a d e .
THE LANCET • Vol 353 • June 19, 1999 2149
In recent decades, there have been major advances in
neuroscience at the behavioural and neural levels, but
the long-standing issue of the neurobiological basis of
variation in intelligence remains unresolved.1 Around the
turn of the 20th century, much attention was focused on
anatomical correlates of intelligence through detailed
necropsy case studies of the brains of outstanding
people, such as mathematician Karl F Gauss or
physician William Osler.2 , 3 By 1907, Spitzka4 h a d
published an extensive monograph that summarised 137
case reports of notable men and women such as Bach
and Descartes, and also presented one of the first group
studies of nine scholars. Weight of the brain and patterns
of gyral convolutions were usually examined.
This early work had several limitations. First, medical
and cognitive status at the time of death were often not
known. Second, normal comparison groups were not
available, so that the results were mainly idiosyncratic
observations. Quantitative measurement was usually
limited to the weight of the whole brain, and even its
relation to intelligence remained unresolved. For
example, novelist Ivan Turgenev’s brain weighed
2012 g,4 whereas the brain of author Anatole France was
half the value (1017 g).5 Third, work was based on the
assumption that intelligence was a unitary homogeneous
ability—even though different people varied greatly in
their area of cognitive excellence. (According to current
theories of intelligence, there are independent spheres or
modules of cognitive ability.6) Last, the studies had no
a priori hypotheses as to the relation between structure
and psychological function, since there was little
knowledge about the cortical localisation of cognitive
f u n c t i o n .7
After the horrific events of World War II, issues
related to the neurobiological substrate of intelligence
were considered with great caution, and research in this
area dwindled. The development of computerised
imaging technologies has made it possible to obtain
quantitative measurements of brain anatomy in vivo with
magnetic resonance scanning, and renewed attention has
been directed to the investigation of structure-function
relations in the general population. The studies have
varied greatly in their methodology, and, although the
results are inconsistent, they do point to a low, but
statistically significant, positive correlation between brain
Lancet 1999; 353: 2149–53
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences,
McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada (S F Witelson PhD,
D L Kigar, T Harvey MD)
Correspondence to: Dr Sandra F Witelson, Department of Psychiatry
and Behavioural Neurosciences, Faculty of Health Sciences,
McMaster University, HSC 3G53, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton,
Ontario L8N 3Z5, Canada
(e-mail: witelson@mcmaster.ca)
The exceptional brain of Albert Einstein
Sandra F Witelson, Debra L Kigar, Thomas Harvey
Department of medical history
DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL HISTORY
2150 THE LANCET • Vol 353 • June 19, 1999
Although there is no record of his having made specific
arrangements for post-mortem study of his brain,
Einstein was sympathetic to the idea of his brain being
studied. As reported in The New York Times in 1951, he,
along with other physicists, underwent electroencephalographic
recordings for research purposes.1 4 He also
“insisted that his brain should be used for research”.1 5 A t
the time of his death, the family requested a necropsy,
which was done by pathologist Thomas Harvey, who
took the initiative to remove the brain for scientific
study. Consent was given by Einstein’s elder son, Hans
Albert Einstein,1 6 and by the executor of Einstein’s
estate, Prof Otto Nathan (ref 17, p 264).
Control brain specimens
The control group consisted of all the male specimens
available at the time (n=35) in the Witelson Normal
Brain Collection based at McMaster University. The key
features of this collection are that the brains are from
research volunteers with normal neurological and
psychiatric status (as judged by
clinical history and medical
assessments) and normal
cognitive ability (as
documented by research
neuropsychological testing that
included IQ assessment).1 8 I n
each case, informed consent
with respect to testing and
necropsy had been obtained.
Mean Full Scale IQ score
o n the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale1 9 w a s
1 1 6 (SD 9). Quantitative
measures of Einstein’s brain
and this control group were
compared; Einstein’s brain was
also compared with a smaller
age-matched subgroup (in the
collection) of the 8 men aged
65 years or more (mean 68) for
brain measures known to
change with advancing age.
Although women have smaller
brains than men,2 0 for purposes
of descriptive analysis of gyral
morphology, Einstein’s brain
was also compared with 56
female brains (the total
number of female brains in the
same collection).
M e a s u r e m e n t s
Direct caliper measurements
were made both from
Einstein’s brain and from the
control brains. Other
measurements were made from
calibrated photographs. We
measured baseline values for
overall dimensions of the
brain, including variables for
which there are published data
(eg, weight, corpus callosum
s i z e2 1); measures involving
parietal regions important for
visuospatial cognition and mathematical thinking; and,
for comparison, measures of frontal and temporal
regions. Statistically significant differences between
Einstein and the control group were defined as those
measures at least 2 SDs from the control mean.
Einstein’s parietal lobes
Figure 1 shows the set of photographs taken in 1955 of
the lateral, superior, inferior, and midsagittal views of
Einstein’s brain. The superior view (figure 1A) shows a
relatively spherical brain which is corroborated
quantitatively (see below). Moderate atrophy is present
around the main fissures in the central regions in both
hemispheres, to an extent common for a person in their
eighth decade.2 2 A unique morphological feature is
visible in the lateral surface of each hemisphere which
otherwise shows usual anatomy (figure 1B, 1C)—
namely, the posterior ascending branch of the Sylvian
fissure is confluent with the postcentral sulcus.
Consequently, there is no parietal operculum (the
DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL HISTORY
Figure 1: Photographs taken in 1995 of five views of Einstein’s whole brain (meninges removed)
A, superior; B, left lateral; C, right lateral; D, inferior; E, midsagittal view of the left hemisphere. The arrow in
each hemisphere indicates the posterior ascending branch of the Sylvian fissure as it runs into (is confluent
with) the postcentral sulcus (compare with figure 2). Consequently, there is no parietal operculum in either
hemisphere. Scale bar, 1 cm.
THE LANCET • Vol 353 • June 19, 1999 2151
anterior part of the supramarginal
gyrus), which normally develops
between these two sulci during fetal
l i f e .2 3 , 2 4 This morphology found in each
of Einstein’s hemispheres was not seen
in any hemisphere of the 35 control
male brains or of the 56 female brains,
nor in any specimen documented in the
published collections of post-mortem
b r a i n s .2 5 , 2 6
Figure 2 highlights this unique
feature of Einstein’s brain in
comparison with a typical control
brain. Three main types of morphology
of the Sylvian fissure and surrounding
gyri have been described previously;2 7
in each type, the Sylvian fissure
terminates or bifurcates behind the
postcentral sulcus, and the parietal
operculum is present. The tracing of
the superimposed hemispheres of the
control brain (figure 2, no 3) shows the
typical right-left asymmetry in size and
position of the Sylvian fissure and the
parietal opercula.2 8 By contrast, the
tracing of Einstein’s hemispheres
(figure 2, no 6) shows the confluence
of the posterior ascending branch of
the Sylvian fissure and the postcentral
sulcus in each hemisphere, the absence
of the parietal opercula, and unusual
symmetry between hemispheres of
sulcal morphology in this region.
Quantitative measurements of
Einstein’s brain compared with the
male control group are shown in the
table, with relevant landmarks shown
in figure 3. Einstein’s brain was not
statistically different from the control
group on most measures. His brain
weight did not differ from the control
group, from the age-matched
subgroup, or from published large agematched
groups (table, measure 1).
Unfortunately, the volume of Einstein’s
brain had not been obtained. Brain length, height, size of
the corpus callosum, and measures of the frontal and
temporal lobes did not differ between Einstein and
controls. However, size of a specific gyral region in the
frontal operculum was different in Einstein’s brain from
that of the control group. The possible association of this
feature in relation to biographical accounts of Einstein’s
atypical speech development1 7 will be reported elsewhere.
By contrast, in the parietal lobes, there were striking
quantitative differences. Each hemisphere of Einstein’s
brain was 1 cm wider (15%) than that of the control
group (measure 5). Maximum width usually occurs
across the end of the Sylvian fissure—the region of
unique morphology in Einstein’s brain. The ratios of
hemisphere width to height and of brain width to length
(measures 6 and 7) showed that in Einstein’s brain the
parietal lobes were relatively wider and the brain more
spherical (see figure 1A) than those in the control group.
In Einstein’s brain, the parietal operculum was missing
in each hemisphere in contrast to control values of
6 · 1 c m2 and 3·6 cm2 in the left and right hemispheres,
respectively (measure 24). Parietal regions typically
s h o w anatomical asymmetry (table, control group,
measures 19–242 8). Einstein’s parietal lobes were
symmetrical (compare with figure 2, no 6). This was due
mainly to his left parietal lobe being larger than
u s u a l , resembling a right hemisphere in size and
m o r p h o l o g y .
D i s c u s s i o n
The gross anatomy of Einstein’s brain was within normal
limits with the exception of his parietal lobes. In each
hemisphere, morphology of the Sylvian fissure was
unique compared with 182 hemispheres from the 35
control male and 56 female brains: the posterior end of
the Sylvian fissure had a relatively anterior position,
associated with no parietal operculum. In this same
region, Einstein’s brain was 15% wider than controls.
These two features suggest that, in Einstein’s brain,
extensive development of the posterior parietal lobes
occurred early,2 4 in both longitudinal and breadth
dimensions, thereby constraining the posterior expansion
DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL HISTORY
Figure 2: Lateral photographs and tracings of left (solid line) and right (dashed line)
superimposed hemispheres of a typical control male brain (1, 2, 3) and the brain of
Einstein (4, 5, 6)
The photographs of the control brain show the parietal operculum in the left (stippled) and right
(hatched) hemisphere, situated between the postcentral (PC) sulcus and the posterior ascending
branch of the Sylvian fissure (SF), which originates at the point of bifurcation (l) and terminates at
S. PC1 is the inferior end of PC at SF. The tracing of the superimposed hemispheres (3) shows the
asymmetry in position and size between the parietal opercula. The tracing of Einstein’s
hemispheres (6) highlights the confluence of PC and the posterior ascending branch of SF in each
hemisphere, the absence of the parietal opercula, and the symmetry of the sulcal morphology
between hemispheres. Comparison of the tracings shows the relatively anterior position of the SF
bifurcation in Einstein, and the associated greater posterior parietal expanse, particularly in his left
hemisphere compared with the control brain.
2152 THE LANCET • Vol 353 • June 19, 1999
of the Sylvian fissure and the development of the parietal
operculum, but resulting in a larger expanse of the
inferior parietal lobule. A further consequence of this
morphology is that the full supramarginal gyrus lies
behind the Sylvian fissure, undivided by a major sulcus
as is usually the case. Van Essen2 9 hypothesised that a
gyrus develops within a region of functionally related
cortex to allow for efficient axonal connectivity between
opposite cortical walls of the gyrus; by contrast, sulci
separate cortical regions having less functional
relatedness. In this context, the compactness of
Einstein’s supramarginal gyrus within the inferior
parietal lobule may reflect an extraordinarily large
expanse of highly integrated cortex within a functional
network. And in fact there is evidence that cortical
representation of different functions is often separated by
s u l c i .3 0 This notion could be consistent with Cajal’s3 1
speculation that variation in axonal connectivity may be
a neuronal correlate of intelligence. A larger expanse of a
functional cortical network may reflect more modules3 2
which could provide a functional advantage.
The inferior parietal lobule is well developed in the
human brain; it is a secondary association area that
provides for cross-modal associations among visual,
somesthetic, and auditory stimuli.7 V i s u o s p a t i a l
cognition, mathematical thought,1 1 and imagery of
m o v e m e n t1 3 are strongly dependent on this region.
Einstein’s exceptional intellect in these cognitive
domains and his self-described mode of scientific
t h i n k i n g1 0 may be related to the atypical anatomy in his
inferior parietal lobules. Increased expansion of the
inferior parietal region was also noted in other physicists
and mathematicians. For example, for both the
mathematician, Gauss, and the physicist, Siljeström,
extensive development of the inferior parietal regions,
including the supramarginal gyri, was noted (ref 4, pp
180, 200).
Einstein’s brain weight was not different from that of
controls, clearly indicating that a large (heavy) brain is
not a necessary condition for exceptional intellect.
Microscopic differences may underlie gross anatomical
differences. The limited data on Einstein’s brain do not
point to a difference in the number of neurons
throughout the depth of the cortex in the frontal or
temporal lobes,3 3 , 3 4 but possibly a difference in the ratio
of the number of glial cells relative to neurons in the left
parietal cortex3 5 (compare ref 36).
This report clearly does not resolve the long-standing
issue of the neuroanatomical substrate of intelligence.
However, the findings do suggest that variation in
specific cognitive functions may be associated with the
structure of the brain regions mediating those functions.
The results have heuristic value for developing
hypotheses of the gross and microscopic anatomical
substrate of different aspects of intelligence that can be
tested in future neuroimaging and post-mortem studies.
In particular, the results predict that anatomical features
of parietal cortex may be related to visuospatial
intelligence. We also hope that this case study may be an
impetus for donation of brain specimens from other
gifted and normal individuals to support investigation of
structure-function relations in health and disease.
This work was supported in part by US NIH contract NS62344, grant
NS18954, and grant MA-10610 from MRC (Canada) to SFW.
Materials were provided by the Albert Einstein Archives, The Hebrew
University of Jerusalem. The contribution of the late Henry C Witelson is
a p p r e c i a t e d .
DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL HISTORY
Figure 3: Sketch of a typical brain showing the landmarks for
defining the measurements shown in table
F, O, and T: frontal, occipital and temporal poles, respectively; PreC, C,
PC: superior ends of the precentral, central and postcentral sulci,
respectively; PreC1, C1, PC1: inferior ends of these sulci, respectively; A,
point of origin of the anterior ascending branch of the Sylvian fissure (SF);
B, point of bifurcation of the posterior SF; S, end of SF; S1, and C2, points
of the shortest distance from S and C1, respectively, to the bottom of the
temporal lobe; parietal operculum (stippled region), the anterior segment
of the supramarginal gyrus which surrounds BS.
Einstein Control group (mean, SD)
Left Right Left Right
Age (yr) 76 57 (11)
Height (cm) 176 178 (8)
Overall brain measures
1 Brain weight, fresh (g) 1230 1400 (118)*
2 Hemisphere weight, fixed (g) 550·0 545·0 591·0 (46·0) 591·0 (48·0)
3 Maximum height of hemisphere 8·9 8·7 9·3 (0·6) 9·4 (0·6)
(cm)†
4 Length of hemisphere (OF) (cm) 17·2 16·4 16·9 (0·6) 16·8 (0·6)
5 Maximum width of hemisphere 7·5§ 7·5§ 6·5 (0·5) 6·5 (0·5)
(cm)‡
6 Ratio of width of hemisphere to 0·84§ 0·86§ 0·70 (0·07) 0·69 (0·07)
height
7 Ratio of width of brain to length 0·89§ 0·77 (0·06)
(mean OF)
8 Corpus callosum area (cm2) 6·8 7·0 (0·90)¶
Frontal lobe (cm)
9 F-PreC 9·2 9·5 9·4 (0·7) 9·2 (0·8)
10 FC 11·3 11·6 10·6 (0·6) 10·5 (0·6)
11 FA 5·1 5·1 4·8 (0·4) 4·7 (0·4)
12 A-PreC1 0·8 0·9 0·9 (0·4) 1·0 (0·4)
13 PreC1-C1 1·2 1·2 1·4 (0·5) 1·2 (0·4)
Temporal lobe (cm)
14 TO 13·2 12·8 13·2 (0·5) 13·2 (0·5)
15 C1-C2 3·9 3·9 4·0 (0·3) 4·0 (0·3)
16 SS1 6·1 6·6 5·1 (1·1) 6·0 (0·9)**
Parietal/occipital lobe (cm)
17 O-PC 8·4 7·9 8·3 (0·8) 8·4 (0·8)
18 OC 8·9 8·3 9·5 (0·6) 9·3 (0·8)
19 OB 7·1 7·9 5·8 (0·9) 7·2 (0·9)**
20 OS 8·0 7·9 6·1 (1·1) 7·4 (1·0)**
21 BS 2·5 2·9 0·9 (1·1) 2·4 (1·3)**
22 C1-PC1 3·5§ 2·0 2·3 (0·6) 2·0 (0·6)**
23 PC1-B 0§ 0§ 1·9 (1·0) 1·1 (1·2)**
24 Parietal operculum (cm2) 0§ 0§ 6·1 (3·4) 3·6 (2·1)**
Control group consists of 35 men and an age-matched male subgroup (see text).
*Our control mean of 1400 g is similar to values of other studies of large groups of
white men of similar age range (30–70 years)—eg, mean fresh brain weight=1399 g,
n=1433, mean age=53 years.20 For the age-matched subgroup, mean (SD) fresh brain
weight was 1386 g (149). In a large study, mean fresh brain weight for a 70–80 year age
group was 1342 g, n=253.20
†Maximum height usually occurs near the plane of point C (figure 3).
‡Maximum width of each hemisphere occurs over the end of SF (figure 3).
§Statistically different (2 SDs from the control group) or reflect unique morphology.
¶Callosal area is larger in non-right-handers and decreases with advancing age.21 There
is evidence to suggest that Einstein was not consistently right-handed.37 Einstein’s
callosal area of 6·8 cm2 tended to be larger than his predicted value (5·9 cm2) when
hand preference and age were taken into account.21
**Statistically significant right-left anatomical asymmetry within the control group
(compare ref 28) (p<0·01, two-tailed paired t-tests).
Measurements (see figure 3) of Einstein’s brain compared with
a control group
THE LANCET • Vol 353 • June 19, 1999 2153
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DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL HISTORY
Latest Updates Regarding Computers
Using keyboard commands
What can be done if the mouse goes kaput right in the middle of something you need to save?You might find this hard to believe. But there was a time when computers didn't have mice. You used the keyboard.
Nearly everything you need can be accomplished from the keyboard. I've known older secretaries who didn't use a mouse. They fly with the keyboard.
Keyboard commands are similar in most programs. I'll use Microsoft Word as an example.
Keyboard commands are similar in most programs. I'll use Microsoft Word as an example.
If the mouse should die, you could save the document with Ctrl + S. If the document has not previously been saved, you'll get Save As. Otherwise, it will just save it.
If you want to save and close the document, use Ctrl + W. You'll get a small window, asking if you want to save. "Yes" is highlighted. Press Enter. The document will be saved and closed.
If the mouse dies, you may just need batteries. That's assuming it's an optical mouse. Otherwise, your computer may be going with the mouse. If so, you may not be able to save anything. But you could still retrieve most of your document.
If you want to save and close the document, use Ctrl + W. You'll get a small window, asking if you want to save. "Yes" is highlighted. Press Enter. The document will be saved and closed.
If the mouse dies, you may just need batteries. That's assuming it's an optical mouse. Otherwise, your computer may be going with the mouse. If so, you may not be able to save anything. But you could still retrieve most of your document.
That's because Word can save documents automatically as you work. Assuming that feature is activated, the document will be available when you next boot up. To activate it in Word 2007, click the Office button at top left. Select Word Options. Select Save. Check "Save Autorecover information every [blank] minutes."
I have this feature set to save every minute. Saving a document takes some resources. So it could slow you as you work. But it's worth the trouble. Besides, most computers today have an abundance of power. You probably won't notice when a document is saved.
In Word 2003, click Tools>>Options. Select the Save tab. Click "Save AutoRecover info every:" Make the setting one minute.
In Word 2003, click Tools>>Options. Select the Save tab. Click "Save AutoRecover info every:" Make the setting one minute.
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